What Enzyme Forms Covalent Bonds Between Restriction Fragments – Enzymes are catalysts or chemicals produced by cells to speed up biochemical reactions. It is usually a protein molecule with a characteristic amino acid sequence that folds to create a three-dimensional structure that gives the molecule unique properties. Another catalytically active molecule is the ribozyme, an enzyme made of RNA rather than protein. Enzymes can be classified and named according to the reactions they catalyze: (1) oxidoreductases, (2) transferases, (3) lyases, (4) isomerases and (6) ligases. Basically, ligases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the joining of two molecules.
. In biology, ligases are a class of enzymes. But what does a ligase do? Let’s define ligase.
What Enzyme Forms Covalent Bonds Between Restriction Fragments
Ligases are a class of enzymes that result in the joining, or linkage, of two molecules. Biologically defined, it is a class of enzymes that catalyze the joining or linking of two macromolecules by forming new bonds such as C-O, C-N, and C-S. Ligase catalyzes ligase reactions such as:
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Between complementary ends of DNA fragments. Thus, DNA ligase plays a key role in DNA repair, replication and recombination. Let us take DNA ligase as an example to understand the mechanism of ligase.
Biological/Biochemical Definition: A ligase is an enzyme that catalyzes the joining of two molecules. An example is DNA ligase, which joins two DNA fragments by forming phosphodiester bonds. Ligases are divided into six subclasses: (1) EC 6.1 (ligases forming carbon-oxygen bonds), (2) EC 6.2 (ligases forming carbon-sulfur bonds), (3) EC 6.3 (ligases forming carbon-nitrogen bonds), (4) EC 6.1 (ligases forming carbon-oxygen bonds), (4) EC 6.1 forming carbon-oxygen bonds (forming carbon-5-carbon bonds). (6) EC 6.6 (ligases forming nitrogen-metal bonds).
DNA ligase is required for DNA replication and DNA repair processes. DNA ligase is widely used in laboratories to perform recombinant DNA experiments. The most commonly used ligase in scientific laboratories is DNA ligase.
DNA ligase joins the 3′ hydroxyl end of one nucleotide (or acceptor) to the 5′ phosphate end of another (donor) via two covalent phosphodiester bonds as follows:
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In general, these ligases are named according to the substrate or macromolecule involved in the reaction; since, for example, amino acid-RNA ligases catalyze the formation of C–O bonds between amino acids and transfer RNAs.
“A ligase that catalyzes the linkage of two macromolecules using energy molecules obtained from the hydrolysis of nucleoside triphosphates such as ATP, GTP, CTP, TTP, and UTP, e.g., the hydrolysis of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)”
There are six classes of enzymes, ligases being one of them. Other classes of enzymes include oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, isomerases, and lyases. Ligases and lyases are closely related enzyme classes. However, ligases and lyases are different classes of enzymes.
Ligases can be classified into six subclasses according to the molecular bonds they catalyze (see Table 2).
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Genes are expressed through the process of protein synthesis. This comprehensive guide provides an in-depth overview of the various steps of biological protein production, from the gene to the secretion process. Topics such as DNA replication during cell cycle, DNA mutation and repair mechanisms, gene pool, modification, and disease are also covered.
This guide describes the benefits and possible harms of genetic engineering. Learn more about this topic in this tutorial so you can clearly articulate the pros and cons of manipulating your genes… T4 DNA ligase is an enzyme that repairs broken DNA and seals it – much like superglue. This particular DNA ligase was isolated from bacteriophage T4. During DNA replication or recombination, breaks or “nicks” often occur in the DNA backbone. Next comes DNA ligase, which plays an important role in repairing these cut DNA strands by joining the two ends of the DNA.
DNA ligase repairs broken DNA by forming a phosphodiester bond between a nearby 5′ phosphate and the 3′ OH of the nicked or cut DNA strand. In addition to double-stranded DNA, T4 DNA ligase can also seal single-strand breaks in RNA or DNA/RNA hybrids.
In molecular biology laboratories, this enzyme is primarily used during cloning to ligate sticky or blunt ends of DNA inserts into vectors. Sticky ends are the ends of the DNA that contain short single-stranded tails or overhangs (sticky ends), while the blunt ends have no overhangs.
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Insert the DNA into the vector using T4 DNA ligase. In this illustration, PCR is used to amplify the DNA insert. The PCR product can then be ligated into a vector using T4 DNA ligase.
DNA ligation was performed using T4 DNA ligase. The three steps of this process are enzymatic adenylation, AMP transfer, and nucleophilic attack of the 5′ end.
The heat inactivation step of T4 DNA ligase is necessary to terminate ligation activity, especially if the use of ligase inhibits downstream chemical reactions. In electroporation, thermal inactivation of the reaction helps to improve transformation efficiency. In chemical transformations, you can use the ligation reaction immediately without a heat inactivation step. However, if you want to store the ligation reaction for a long time, you will need to heat the reaction.
The optimal temperature for the ligation reaction is 12 to 16 °C to maintain a balance between T4 DNA ligase activity and the stability of the annealed DNA strand (Lund et al., 1996).
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Enzyme activity can be increased by performing ligation at elevated temperatures. But overall, it reduces ligation efficiency because DNA molecules move so fast that it’s hard for the ends of DNA fragments to form covalent bonds with each other and stay connected.
Alternatively, using lower temperatures slows down the DNA molecules to better form covalent bonds, but also reduces ligase activity. So it’s a good idea to check the manufacturer’s instructions for the recommended temperature before making the connection.
For optimal use of T4 DNA Ligase, adjust the ligation reaction to 16 °C. Incubation times can be as short as 10 minutes for sticky-end ligation and as little as 2 hours for blunt-end ligation. However, using longer incubation times (15-18 hours) at 16 °C will significantly increase ligation efficiency for both types of DNA ends.
To prevent contamination of the reaction with ligase inhibitors such as high salt or EDTA, make sure you have purified the DNA insert and plasmid. One method of removing contaminants is ethanol precipitation.
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So what are ligase inhibitors? Ligase inhibitors are substances in solution, such as high salt or EDTA, that can inhibit ligase activity.
If the DNA concentration in the ligation reaction is too low, there may not be enough DNA ends attached to the vector. However, if the DNA concentration is too high, the ligation reaction may generate undesirably long, linear DNA molecules. Therefore, try different ratios of vector and insert DNA to find the most effective ratio. First, you can test 1:1 and 1:3 vector:insert DNA molar ratios.
To find out how much insert DNA to add to the ligation reaction (if you want a 1:3 ratio), use the following formula:
If the ATP concentration in the ligation reaction is too low, the ligation will fail. Therefore, be sure to use a compatible buffer that comes with T4 DNA Ligase. Also, double check the expiration date of the T4 DNA ligase to see if the buffer or ligase should be discarded. Finally, frequent freezing and thawing of ligation buffer will reduce the ATP activity in the buffer. It may be necessary to add large amounts of fresh ATP to the ligation reaction.
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Ligation reactions can also fail due to enzyme inactivation. Always test the functionality of the ligase before use.
One way to verify that the T4 DNA ligase is still working is to test your ligase with phage Lambda DNA digested with HindIII restriction enzyme.
Store T4 DNA ligase and buffer in a -20 °C freezer. This enzyme should be added last in the ligation reaction. Therefore, keep the enzyme in the refrigerator until it needs to be added to the reaction and keep the tubes on ice. Return enzymes to the refrigerator as soon as possible after use.
Johnson, A. and O’Donnell, M. (2005). DNA Ligase: Get the hang of the deal. Current Biology, 15(3), R90–R92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.025.
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Lund, A.H., Duch, M., and Skou Pedersen, F. (1996). Increase cloning efficiency by incorporating temperature cycling. Nucleic Acids Research, 24(4), 800–801. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/24.4.800.
Matsumura, I. (2015). Why Johnny Can’t Be Clone: Common pitfalls and not-so-common solutions. Biotechnology, 59(3), IV-XIII. doi: 10.2144/000114324.
Tanabe, M., Ishino, I., and Nishida, H. (2015). Protein engineering from structure-function analysis to practical applications of DNA ligases. Archaea, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/267570.
Immel, S. (1991). Heat inactivation of DNA ligase prior to electroporation improves transformation efficiency. Nucleic Acids Research, 19(24), 6960. https://vvv.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC32934…
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T4 DNA Ligase Overview: What It Is, How It Works, Reactions, and More T4 DNA Ligase is an enzyme that repairs broken DNA and seals it up, like superglue. This section…Basic Requirements
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