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Midazolam is a benzodiazepine drug used for anesthesia, seizures, procedural sedation, and agitation. A combination of medetomidine HCL (3.3 MG/ML) and ketamine HCL (150 MG/ML), three…
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Naltrexone hydrochloride is an opioid receptor antagonist used in veterinary medicine as a reversal agent for opiate agonists such as butorphanol. It is also used for…
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Wildlife practice is a specialist area of veterinary medicine, particularly in the field of large and exotic animals. Containment of individual animals of these species almost always requires the use of…
Powerful synthetic opiates are essential tools for capturing and handling wildlife. These drugs provide rapid and relatively prolonged immobilization that is completely reversible…
Many routine minimally invasive procedures in domestic animals require anesthesia for the well-being and safety of the zoo animal and the veterinarian. Because,…
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Often, procedures performed under regular constraints with companion animals require sedation or anesthesia for exotic species, in small animal veterinary practice, …
While anesthesia in wild animals is often performed under difficult conditions, anesthesia procedures for zoo animals—many of the same species…
Zoo animals are similar to domestic animals in that they all require regular veterinary care. Some zoo animals can be examined without any sedation, while others require complete… Although both large and small strongyles have long been associated with chronic diarrhea, recurrent colic, and weight loss in horses and foals, giardiasis (giardia) has been reported. some cases as the cause of some of these symptoms in horses. Giardia can also be found in the feces of healthy horses, but is rarely recognized as a cause of diarrhea.1
Giardia (Giardia duodenalis) are small, flagellated protozoan organisms that infect the small intestine of many mammals, including horses. Recent studies from several countries suggest that infectious giardiasis is more common than conventional wisdom suggests, potentially endangering young foals as well as their handlers.2
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Historical data indicate that approximately 0.5-35% of horses worldwide are infected with Giardia duodenalis. This is the most common species of giardia that infects horses, humans, dogs and cats. One found that 11-14% of 398 foals tested in Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and Greece had giardia cysts. Some foals shed only a small number of cysts (50/gram of faeces), but others shed 4 million infectious cysts/gram of faeces. The study also reported that young horses are more likely to be infected with giardia. After horses ingest giardia cysts, the parasite hatches or encysts, gaining the ability to mobilize and adhere to the lining of the small intestine wall. Once attached, it obtains nutrients and begins to multiply, some of which form cysts that are excreted in the horse’s faeces.3
Giardiasis is zoonotic, meaning that humans exposed to infected animals are also at risk of developing the infection. Giardia can cause diarrhea, poor performance, poor coat, weight loss and other common signs of intestinal parasitism in horses. Some infected foals shedding Giardia cysts may not show signs of diarrhea, but are still capable of infecting other animals, including humans. This presents the potential for a continuous transmission cycle in a facility, especially when congestion is an issue.
Anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that can grow in the absence of oxygen) are often overlooked pathogenic bacteria of the lower respiratory tract in horses.4 There are literally hundreds of anaerobic bacteria isolated from the pharyngeal-tonsillar skin of healthy horses4; as with many bacterial infections, the immunocompromised state is believed to allow these bacteria to multiply.
In equine medicine, the term bronchopneumonia is often used to refer to lower respiratory tract infections, regardless of whether the infection is located in the bronchi or whether the infection includes both the bronchi and the lung parenchyma.5 When the lung infection then spreads to the bronchi. visceral parenchyma and pleural space, the disease is called pleuropneumonia. The spectrum of clinical signs presented by horses with bronchopneumonia is wide and reflects the severity of the disease process. Early identification of affected animals and prompt initiation of appropriate therapy are essential to prevent mortality and functional impairment of the respiratory system.4 Unfortunately, antimicrobials that specifically target anaerobic pathogens are often not used.
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Metronidazole is an injectable and oral antibacterial agent (for anaerobes) and antiprotozoal. Although there is no veterinary approved metronidazole product, this drug has been widely used in the treatment of Giardia spp in both dogs and cats. It is also used clinically in small animals for the treatment of other parasites (Trichomonas spp and Balantidium coli) as well as for the treatment of enteric and systemic anaerobic infections. It is sometimes used as a prophylactic antibiotic in perioperative surgery where anaerobes may be present. In horses, metronidazole has been used clinically for the treatment of systemic and enteric anaerobic infections.
“Metronidazole is a concentration-dependent bactericidal agent against susceptible bacteria. Its exact mechanism of action is not fully understood, but it is taken up by anaerobic organisms, then reduced to an unidentified polar compound. This compound is believed to be responsible for the drug’s antimicrobial activity, which breaks DNA and interferes with nucleic acid synthesis Metronidazole has activity against obligate anaerobes including Bacteroides spp (including B fragilis), Eubacterium spp, Fusobacterium spp, Veillonella spp , Clostridium spp, Peptocoptostreptococcus spp, spp and Prevotella spp. Actinomyces spp often resistant to metronidazole Some isolates of C difficile may also be resistant.”6
In dogs, reported adverse effects included neurological disorders, lethargy, weakness, neutropenia, hepatotoxicity, hematuria, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Rare cases of associated cutaneous vasculitis have also been reported. Neurological toxicity in dogs is believed to occur after a high acute dose or with moderate or high dose chronic therapy. In cats, vomiting, inappetence, hepatotoxicity and rarely CNS toxicity may occur with metronidazole therapy. Genotoxicity was detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells collected from cats after 7 days of oral metronidazole, but resolved within 6 days of drug discontinuation. In horses, metronidazole can occasionally cause anorexia, ataxia, and depression, especially when used at higher doses. There have been cases of C. difficile and C. perfringens diarrhea and death after metronidazole use.6
Metronidazole is available in the US through several pharmaceutical manufacturers and through specialty veterinary drug companies. METRONIDAZOLE 50 MG/ML by NexGen Pharmaceuticals is indicated for the treatment of giardiasis in horses and small animals, as well as other protozoan and anaerobic bacterial infections.
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4 Sweeney C.R., et al. al. Anaerobic bacteria in 21 horses with pleuropneumonia. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1985 Oct 1;187(7):721-4.
Chronic diarrhea, recurrent colic, and weight loss in horses and foals have often been attributed to large and small strongyles, which are common worm infestations. However, giardiasis (giardia) was…
There are many bacterial and parasitic infestations that can cause problems for both pets such as dogs and large animals such as horses. There is some interbreeding between the species…
Equine protozoan myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a very debilitating disease that is common on American horse farms and facilities, although only a small percentage of horses…
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There are many bacterial infections that horses suffer from. Some are very common and commonly encountered, while others are much rarer. Bacterial disease occurs when a horse’s immune system…
Although chronic diarrhea in horses is often associated with infestations of large or small strongyles (worms), in some cases giardiasis (giardia) has been reported to be the cause of these…
Parasitic worms can live in the intestines of most species, a small number of worms are tolerated and have no demonstrable effect on the general health of the animal. Larger infestations…
Ponazuril is an anticoccidial (antiprotozoal) compound with activity against several genera of the phylum Apicomplexa. Ponazuril (also known as toltrazuril sulfone) is a metabolite of the bird… So if you want to know the volume of liquid that contains 50 mg of the drug, enter 50 mg in the first line of the calculator and you will find the answer is 2.5 ml.
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Milligrams (mg) measure weight and milliliters (ml) measure volume of liquid. The word “Milli” comes from the Latin mille, which means mille. There are 1,000 milligrams in a gram and 1,000 milliliters in a liter of liquid.
Therefore, 1 mg is found in 0.5 ml of solution. So if there is 1 mg of active drug in 0.5 mL, we can multiply 0.5 mL of solution by five to get our answer (since we want 5 mg of drug). 0.5 times five equals 2 and a half milliliters.
The concentration of a solution is measured in milligrams per milliliter (mg/mL). In other words, it is the amount of dissolved substance in a certain volume of a liquid. For example, a 7.5 mg/mL salt water solution has 7.5
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